Report on the article Islamic Finance Development in the Sultanate of Oman: Barriers and Recommendations

Introduction

During the last decade of the twentieth century, Islamic finance experienced flourishing existence with the recent focus on Islamic financial products in money markets locally and internationally. The establishment of dedicated Islamic entities and banks enhanced Islamic financing to offer their services to the global economy. At first, the geographic distribution of Islamic financing entities was restricted to countries in the Middle East and Iran mostly. However, with the beginning of the 21st century, Islamic financing system expanded its activity to 75 countries across the world. The growth of the industry was remarkable during the last decade with assets reaching US$1.1 trillion in 2012. However, the situation is different in the Sultanate of Oman, where Islamic financing existence is not obvious; this reduced the possibility to assess the performance of this sector in the Sultanate, but with the identification of potential demand and opportunities offered by this industry the way can be paved for a dual financial system for investors in Oman for both conventional and Shariah financing products. (Watson, 2013)

An overview of the article 

This paper investigates the barriers that the Sultanate of Oman experiences from the adoption of Islamic financing system along with the available system it has. Regarding the nature of Oman, its main religious is Islam and is one of the Muslim Arabic countries which provides it with the suitable attributes to adopt Islamic financing system. However, the environment in Oman puts some barriers in the face of adopting the Islamic finance system. In spite that Oman is considered as a part of the Muslim society, certain factors such as brand recognition and lack of knowledge of product features which can reduce the possibility to penetrate the financial market of Oman. To introduce Islamic financing system in a country like Oman, demand indexes must exhibit certain growth in terms of considering market share of the financial products or securities used under Islamic finance system. Currently, and since 2001, there appeared future growth opportunities in the industry which can provide chances for Islamic finance to extend its activity beyond the Middle East or at least be syndicated in all Arabic countries, including the Sultanate of Oman. However, based on potential demand and opportunities offered in Oman by the Islamic financing system, 85% of consumers in Oman are willing to invest their money in this sector which can give a clear image of the potential successful opportunity for it in Oman. Consumers are in fact driven by certain reasons to invest in Islamic banks, such as the religious motivation as the only accepted alternative to Riba for Muslims in general. Another factor is the quality provided by Islamic instruments that offer Shariah compliant products. However, certain barriers stand in front of the adoption of Islamic financing system in Oman, such as institution branding, which is related to banks reputation; the role played by educational institutions is another contributing factor to restrict the adoption of the system in Oman, which may cause loosing the potential benefits behind its application, such as reducing country reliance on oil revenues and potential employment opportunities both on the short and long run. (McCoy et al, 2014)

An evaluation of the article using other articles

This article highlights the barriers that stops the Sultanate of Oman from adopting Islamic financing system alongside with the current conventional applied banking system. The country main revenue source is oil production which increased by 339% during the past 50 years. According to this article, Oman is not one of the Muslim countries that apply Islamic financing system because of certain barriers that bounds its capacity to adopt this system and make useful benefits out of its application, such as finding an alternative source of profitability other than oil investments and creating many employment opportunities for Omani citizens. The study recommends that there are specific factors that Islamic financing system needs to enhance in order to find the proper environment for its application, which are supporting customer service by helping customers who are interested in this new investment system to have a better understanding of its different attributes, such as emphasizing product knowledge, excelling customer care and consider the technology aspect. The article also suggests that branding the industry in Oman must be experience-oriented, while focusing on financial prospects and service legitimacy. (M Iqbal et al, 2016)

According to the report of Muscat bank, " Developing a Sustainable Islamic Banking Industry in Oman; Shaping the Future of the Islamic Finance Industry", Oman is the last countries in the gulf to adopt Islamic banking. Based on the thorough analyzing of Omani citizens preferences for Islamic products, researchers in the field found that they strongly prefer it based on the religious background it offers them as the best alternative to Riba. At the beginning, the growth rate sounds slow a bit, as it depends on consumers needs it can be raised dramatically if the Islamic financing products fulfilled these needs, compared to conventional banking products. A serious challenge faces Islamic banks which is the need to generate profits to depositors while make sufficient investments in the development of a broad offering of their financial products. Nevertheless, sukuk markets in Oman need to develop its pricing without dependency on vibrant bonds market in order to reach a yield curve that is not built on a sovereign issuance program. This can encourage issuers to speed up issuance process with the available flexible and affordable financing of Islamic banks. As these sukuk are considered safe for investors, investment can be expanded more in Islamic financing system. The researchers in this regard put some recommendations that can make Islamic financing system more syndicated in countries like Oman which is adopting a conventional financing system:

• Provide funds for both staff and banking services in Islamic banking sector
• Develop long term banking strategies
• Develop committee to discuss regular or emergent issues
• There should be regular issuing of sukuk guaranteed by the government of Oman
• There should be issued short term sukuk to ensure liquidity management as well. (Johari et al, 2015)

There are many reports and studies that investigate the issue of Islamic financing application in Oman, one of these studies was Anthony Watson's " Islamic Finance in Oman - New Horizons for Growth". According to Watson, Islamic financing appeared in Oman since 2012 as part of the growing financial services industry in the area. Based on the decree issued by Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said that authorizes the adoption of Islamic financing system and opens the gates in front of the establishment of Islamic banks, the Central Bank of Oman issued the IBRF (Islamic Banking Regulatory Framework) which identify different rules that regulate the financial sector in Oman for both conventional and Islamic banking systems. Watson supports the last report point of view regarding sukuk and its importance to Oman economy as a successful Islamic capital market instrument that is capable of keeping liquidity when issued for short term periods. Sukuk is secured by different legislation terms, such as being Shariah compliant, compared to bond issue. Nevertheless, sukuk holder has partial ownership of its underlying asset, while conventional instruments like bonds is a debt obligation only that provides zero ownership to its holder. Sukuk is defined as negotiable capital market instruments that guarantee partial interest in underlying profits and assets. (Johari et al, 2015)

The current article, hence, proves consensus with the other two articles in terms of the late of adopting Islamic financing system in Oman, in spite of being an Islamic Arabic country, the current article finds different barriers as reasons behind this late adoption, such as the role of educational institutions and institution branding problem; it suggests that it is difficult to measure the market share of Islamic products or put expectation regarding its gains in the future, however, other articles suggest that the adoption began since 2012 with the declaration of Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said that authorizes the adoption of Islamic financing system. Another point of difference, the other two reports discussed sukuk as safe Islamic capital market instruments and how they are dependent on Shariah which make them suitable to Muslims in Oman as religious oriented capital market instruments compared to bonds; which was not widely mentioned in the current article. (Johari et al, 2015)

An application of your evaluation to the Omani market

Based on the last evaluation of Omani Market, we can find that Oman still adopt its conventional financing system with bonds as the main capital market instruments, it also recently allowed the entry of Islamic financing instruments, sukuk, which are distinguished by being safe and Shariah committed. While being a Muslim country, Oman did not apply Islamic financing system until 2012 after the issuance of the decree, issued by Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said that authorizes the adoption of Islamic financing system and opens the gates in front of the establishment of Islamic banks. Islamic financing can make greater benefit to Oman money market in case of making full use of sukuk and Islamic banking products and services. For instance, by the adoption of Islamic financial instruments, customers in Oman who are interested in banking investment will find sukuk as Shariah compliant and provide them with a more legitimate investing tool compared to Riba that bonds represent under the conventional capital market already applied in Oman. Nevertheless, sukuk are distinguished by providing its holder with partial ownership compared to bonds that grants holder interest value only. The adoption of Islamic financing system in Oman must be paired with syndicating sukuk sales in different areas with different prices according to customers' needs. Therefore, pricing must be time-based, so short term sukuk are meant for customers seeking for quicker liquidity, its price must be aligned with its time frame. On the other hand, long term sukuk can be provided for investors who are willing to invest in Islamic banks for years. Interest rates and pricing must be set according to timing and value of the instrument. Also, Oman can expand its Islamic markets in other countries by opening the gates in front of Islamic banks that have good reputation in other countries to create new investments on its territories. (Watson, 2013)

Conclusion and/or recommendation

The current article discusses the barriers that face the adoption of Islamic financing system in Oman and how this can affect the opportunities of future investments both regionally and internationally. The article found that there are some reasons behind the late adoption of Islamic financing in Oman, such as institution branding, this barrier is related to banks reputation, another barrier is the role played by educational institutions as a main contributing factor to restrict the adoption of the system in Oman, which may cause loosing the potential benefits behind its adoption, such as reducing country reliance on oil revenues and increased potential employment opportunities both on the short and long run. After reviewing other relevant articles, we found that most researchers agrees on the late adoption of Islamic financing system in Oman market, however, other articles discussed how valuable are sukuk as capital market instruments that are more suitable in nature to Muslims as they are Shariah committed and provide partial ownership compared to bonds as conventional capital market instrument that only give its holder the specified interest with no ownership in assets. Finally, the article referred to potential benefits behind the adoption of Islamic financing system and relates it to the availability of multiple employment opportunities for Omani citizens and the reduced dependency on revenues generated from oil production only. (Johari et al, 2015)

International Business

Introduction

International Trade Holding Co. is an international company that is multi diverse and contains different employees who are professional from different areas of the world. The company tries to improve its competitive advantage and make more profits. The company manages and organizes many projects including more than 1,000 people and keeps growing, ITHC’s interest for opportunities also keeps going. The company's logo reflects its strong commitment to all involved services such as endeavor, hospitality, aviation, construction and retail. The company prefers innovations and is committed to expand its activities internationally. International Trade Holding Company KSC (ITHC) is the Corporate Headquarters of a privately owned diverse group of Companies that are existing in Variety of disciplines and industries mainly based in Kuwait. ITHC was established first in 2001 by its President and Chairman Dr. Hamad Al-Tuwaijri and it is continuing expanding and growing in Kuwait and overseas. Ithc, (2016) The current assignment is discussing and critically discussing different global business operations of the company, critically discussing different environmental factors affecting the company's business in Philippines referring to factors such as the socio-cultural factors, the technological factors, political/legal factors, ethical and echological factors. The company's motivating factors of investing abroad are also discussed and evaluated such as the supply factors, demand factors, political and other factors.

Analysis

The company has different global business operations such as hospitality business operations, aviation, construction and retail business operations. According to Willcocks, (2016) global business refers to how international trade and relevant operations are managed and this occurs across the world. In case of ITHC; the company is doing great efforts to present effective and high quality services abroad in all the different fields and activities as for example; the company has established different hotels of very high quality in different areas of the world such as Movenpick Hotel – Kuwait, The Convention Centre and Royal Suites-Kuwait, Swiss-bel Hotel Plaza – Kuwait, MoevenpickHuma Island Palawan – Philippines and the United International Hotel Group - Kuwait, Lebanon. These projects include different operations such as providing the best customer service, presenting new products and having strong human resource. The company depends on strong and effective global business operations in order to keep competitive and not to be in need for supplying a cost-effective foundation. The company gives great care for its talents as it focuses on talent balances, for example, in the retail department, the company tries to match between the supply and demand of skills in marketing, distributing and sales. The talents of the company can run specific support processes in order to reduce costs and raise profits. Technology is highly used by the company in order to cope with different changes occurring in global technology, the company focuses on specific uses for technology especially in its construction projects as it uses technology for providing its clients with the best and most advanced engineering designs and modern analytical systems. According to Birula, (2014), most foreign trade categories are specialized in machinery and transportation such as automobiles and others. In the case of ITHC, the company is globally trading in aviation field to support customers with the aircraft assistance through the business of the Golden Falcon Aviation which is a young company for presenting services of cargo, passenger and military aircraft assistance in Kuwait. The company uses multi-skilled staff for producing a safe ground service that is fast and cost efficient. The company global business operations are run by a professional management team that uses different approaches for running the international business of the company.     

The company is making different projects in Philippine such as the Movenpick hotel resort for providing high quality hospitality services which is excellent and innovative. There are different environmental factors in Philippine that affect the business of the company in Philippine and these factors influence the business in many ways and can be analyzed using the PESTLE analysis as according to Abdullah and Shamsher, (2011), the PESTLE analysis can help the organization identifies the important factors related to the environment that can affect the organization and this helps it improve its processes to reach better outcomes. In case of ITHC, the environmental factors affecting the company in Philippine are as follows:

Political	The Philippine is a small country that has an honesty scheme of the Supreme court and the court has a tax appeal that makes business there is easy and attractable. The country is known for unpredictable shifts in its national politics as there are mass protests, laws reversals that lead to a climate of uncertainty that makes foreign investors very careful to have business there. The country has different laws that may be challenging such as laws that prevent married women from work which affects businesses that depends on women such as hairdressers and different needed services for women, this makes ITHC raises its effectiveness in its business there with high protection via the contracts with the companies there and organizing its workforce and relevant issues alongside with the laws and legislations and politics of Philippines.
Economic	The Philippines is a country of strong economy that is ranked as the 19th of the 41 countries of the region of the Asian Pacific and it is ranked as 44th biggest economy internationally based on estimates of the HSBC. The best performance in the region is in the stock market which makes it a good economic opportunity for ITHC to market its retail products there. There is an economic expansion in the country and it is continuing. Economy there is supported by the governmental reforms and the stable industrial environment.
Socio cultural	Filipinos are kind people, friendly and talented. They have a wealthy culture with different traditions that are affected by the culture of Spain and America. Rice and coconut are main products there. Hospitality industry is preferred by people from all over the world in addition to tourism industry. The Filipinos like shopping and going outside which makes the hotel industry is vivid there.
Technological	The country depends on innovating different industries and fields to cope technological advances in the world. There is a wide range of using advances information systems such as depending on the Innovative Rainwater Harvesting System (IRHS) that makes the country protected from rains by the strong leak-proof system. The country also has an advanced GSM Data Terminal system that gives business organizations a good opportunity to have easy wireless access to many online sites for getting data easily and making financial transactions easily and securely. (Nehru et al, 2012)
Legal	The country has a different legal systems that support businessmen and foreign investments there. Taxation system is also flexible and suitable for foreign investors. The foreign direct investment Philippines policy is very liberal as it is release to any corporation or financier that would like to spend in it. This makes the opportunity of ITHC is great in business there.
Environmental	The country has a very nice environment that has fine weather and many beautiful sceneries and views which makes it a preferable tourist destination and makes the opportunity of making good hospitality business good for ITHC. (Abad, 2013)

There is a number of motivating factors for investing abroad that ITHC depends on such as the supply factors as the company tries to set suitable prices of its products and services as it depends on analyzing the market and presenting reasonable prices based on the needs and demands of the market locally and internationally. An example is the prices of the Alta Moda Boutique owned by the company as it presents a variety of prices that are ranged and reflecting for the high quality of the products there compared to other international brands for retailing clothes. This makes the company has increase supply. (ITHC, 2016) Technology is also regarded by the company in all different activities as a factor for improving its supply, for example, the company is keen on presenting the best and most advanced technologies in its construction and aviation services, the company has very fast aviation and cargo services that are also accurate and based on latest technology. According to Berg, (2009) regarding the customers' expectation is important to be considered within the factors affecting investing abroad, the ITHC company makes this by investigating the market where it is marketing its products internationally and making needed analysis for realizing the expectations of the market and how far the company is trying to reach them and even exceed them. Among the factors affecting the company's international investment is the number of producers in the market as this decides the demands of the market to the company's products and the amount of production needed, this also refers to the amount of production needed and the quality level that should be exceeded or at least met. The company is also keen on realizing the shifts in the supply curve that can lead to changes in the market demands and prices of different products. According to Newton, (2008) there are natural conditions that affect the foreign investments of international business organizations such as the natural elements in each country the company is investing in, people's interests and the workforce as well as other factors such as labor costs and raw materials produced in the country. In relation to the international investments of ITHC; the company is regarding natural conditions of the countries it is investing in such as the people's interests in Kuwait as the company realizes how far people like shopping and are interested in clothes and latest fashion especially women which made it open its retail shop for women clothes known as Alta Moda Boutique. Other factors are according to Wood et al, (2012) are the government policies that can support the international business or worsen it as in some countries there are strict laws in some countries imposed on imports and exports and impose high taxes that are able to changes according to laws. This can be applied on the case of ITHC as the company makes business in Philippine where there are high taxes imposed over the imports and exports which makes the company careful for its contracts with the business entities and suppliers in Philippine as the company's projects there depends on using their work labor and procuring various raw materials that are subject to the Philippine laws and legislations.      

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is important to state that international business is important to improve the competitive advantage of business organizations and it increases profits as well. There are many different fields and regions in the world where ITHC works as an international company in many fields including construction, aviation and retail businesses. The company has some projects in Philippine such as its hotel Movenpick project and the country has many factors that affect the business and international investment of the company there such as the political, environmental, legal, technological, socio cultural and economic factors. This is presented through the PESTLE analysis. The company has main motivating factors for investing abroad such as demand factors, supply factors, market needs, customers expectations and others and the company is very careful to regard these factors when it is making international business there.

Custom Molds Case Study

Introduction

Custom Models is a company specialized in plastic molds production, founded by Tom and Mason Miller in 1987. The main activity of the company is the manufacture of custom molds used for making plastic parts. The company also produces high quality plastic connectors incorporate in electronic devices. The company operates to provide electronic connectors producers with state-of-the-art customized molds that are manufactured closely according to each customer standards and requirements. Having good reputation in molds design and fabrication, the company management decided to expand its business to manufacture plastic parts, which led the necessity to change current strategies in order to handle the demand level and quality control requirements.

Analysis

Tom and Mason Miller, the father-and-son-team of the company, faced the problem of adopting new strategies to meet the change in order requirements, regarding time schedules, quality control and so forth. Regarding demand fluctuations, electronics producers attempted to sign agreements with their suppliers to ensure strict delivery of raw materials provided that the received materials must be both cheap and of high quality. Therefore, Custom Molds Company increased its production of custom molds which required extra work load and full rearrangement of the plant layout. With the expansion in production, the company increased its molding equipments and ingredient mixing facilities in order to be the leading supplier of plastic molds by the mid 1990’s. Therefore, the company became involved in two manufacturing processes: plastic parts production and fabricating molds. The increase in work load in Custom Molds led to reduced performance level. The company received tons of negative feedback regarding its incapacity to meet delivery promises. Furthermore, the large-scale production raised the number of defective products which increased customers’ complaints regarding production quality. In order to achieve its objective and become the leading molds supplier, Custom Molds has to rearrange its manufacturing processes and adopt time management techniques; this can help meet demand while keep production quality level. Furthermore, the company has to evaluate its market and identify priorities regarding quality control and mass production based on marketplace fluctuations and decide where to focus its efforts, either on fabricating molds or manufacturing plastic parts.

Conclusion

Custom Molds is a supplier for plastic molds for electronics manufacturers; lately, the company expanded its activities to include the manufacturing of plastic parts, in addition to molds injection activities. As a result, the demand for the company production increased which implies the expansion in manufacturing processes, increasing work load and rearrangement of current strategy to meet the new demand level. The company faced the problem of increased complaints regarding mediocre quality of products and delayed delivery. In order to solve this problem, the company must change its production policy and prepare new effective and proactive policy that considers the fulfillment of four main aspects: profitability, quality control, timeliness and cost effectiveness.

A Comparison between YEAT'S "The Lake Isle of Innisfree" and "The Circus Animals Desertion" Themes and Language and Tones

William Butler Yeats(1865-1939)

1. The Themes

"The Lake" is a poem that bears a main theme which is nature impact on people of the city and how this can provide great relaxation and relief from city life anxiety and noise. Yeats tries to describe how peaceful and beautiful it is to live in a natural world free from pollution and technology so he describes how he will get up and escape all the city noise and fatigue to go to the calm lake life as he says in the first stanza:

"I will and arise and go now, and go to Innisfree"

The poet is escaping from city life with all its components to a simple life with simple components such as a small house to live in which is only made of clay and wattles as natural components without man's interference as he says in the first stanza:

"And a small cabin build there,

Of clay and wattles made."

The poet tried to use natural elements to express his main theme which is nature and he referred to "bean rows", "honey bees", "veils of the morning", "cricket", " lake water" and" shore" in order to confirm his deep feelings and love for nature with all its elements. (Driscoll, 2011)

In the poem "The Circus" there are more complicated themes such as "aging and career" and "exploration and truth", the poet is discussing his career after he aged through time and compares it with a circus and that his literary works were not expressing his real life events. Poetic imaginations were compared to beasts that within time they disappeared then he tries to say that there is nothing new to present for his audience who read his poems in the past. He thinks that there are no new themes to be expressed by him in his works as he says in the first stanza:

"I sought a theme and sought for it in vain,
I sought it daily for six weeks or so."

Exploration and truth is another theme expressed clearly and in a severe manner as Yeats explores how truth became clear for him as he remembered some of his works and feels not satisfied with the symbols they represented but it was his feelings that forced him to write about them as he says in the second stanza:

"And then a counter-truth filled out its play,
The Countess Cathleen' was the name I gave it;
She, pity-crazed, had given her soul away,
But masterful Heaven had intervened to save it.
I thought my dear must her own soul destroy
So did fanaticism and hate enslave it,
And this brought forth a dream and soon enough
This dream itself had all my thought and love."

Then the poet discusses that his works were good enough to the extent that he should stop working again.

Language and Tone

The poet uses very simple language and clear relaxing and calm tone in "The Lake" that can take the reader to an imaginary world of a lake and the language expresses all feelings of comfort that the poet has. The poet uses figurative language to express his idea of being happy alone in nature such as using words that bear natural meanings such as: " honey, clay, wattles, small, cabin, hive, alone, glade, peace, slow, sings, glimmer, wings, water and deep heart.".

The poet uses a very simple tone in his poem "The Lake" to reflect his idea of the simple life of nature as he only uses three stanzas written in a flow of tones and a simple ABAB rhyme scheme to reflect harmony and easiness in order to express how simple and relaxing the life in the lake is.

Yet the language in "The Circus" is completely different from that in "The Lake" as the simple language that is relaxing disappeared, as the language and the tone are reflecting sad themes or feelings of a man who is going to die soon, the writer used tough words such as: "old themes, allegorical dreams, vain, battle, starved, pity-crazed, destroy, hate, enslave, refuse, sweepings, old bones and broken can." These words expressed the deep feelings of suffering the poet's reminding and analyzing his works and the themes he presented throughout his own career. The poet used a hard tone compared with that soft one in "The Lake" as the lines were full of words and the tone wasn't relaxing or calm but the rhyme scheme was complicated than that of "The Lake" as it was ABABABCC without inner music but the most obvious thing is that the poem resembled a traditional epic but it wasn't which perplexes the readers and makes them worried and suffering just as Yeats was suffering. (eNotes, 2015)

A Passage to India E. M. Forester

Edward Morgan Forster is a traditional realistic novelist in the English literature who was characterizing with his modern thoughts and ideas.

He was born in London in 1879 for an architect father. He received his education at Tongridge School and after that he went to King’s College, Cambridge. He was interested in discovering human relationships which should have equality within and in modern life issues and this appear clearly in his novels.

In 1912 and 1922, Forster visited India twice, and this helped him write his great novel A Passage to India which has main modernism features such as the following ones:

Example	Explanation	Feature
Adela was convinced she wasn't fit for marriage; her objectivity makes her able to understand this clearly. Aziz at the novel's end tells Fielding :"It is useless discussing Hindus with me. Living with them teaches me no more. When I think I annoy them, I do not, when I think I don't annoy them, I do. "	The author uses objectivity to represent how people in the modern life can face their fates objectively and how they can cope with their reality. Objectivity is used to state that religions shouldn't be discussed with people from other religions in order not to make conflicts between people as a result of cultural misunderstanding.	Objectivity
The philosophy of Mrs. Moor as she thinks love can pass any borders of class or political distinctions Godbole's philosophywith his chant of Krishna, the universal love God.	Forster asserts the importance of universal love between all types of people everywhere in the world without considering the religion, language or race differences which is a modern feature.	Universal love
Mr. Turton thinks that women is not helpful at all and thinks ruling India would be better without the presence of women. Aziz considers women as things to be idolized which is clear in his reactions to Mrs. Moore and his attitude to his dead wife.	Forster tries to refer to the passive treatment of womenthrough many figures and situations in the novel and how women are not fairly dealt with by the society.	Women role
The Cave (MarberCave) represents the nature of India in an old place. It can reflect many things such as the dark sides of humanity, fears of human beings of their future. Its echoes made Mrs. Moor realize her bad sides and Adela was helped by it to admit the reality of her relationship with Roony and that they weren't attracted to each other. The mosque can be a symbol for the Islamic religion and how it is peaceful and it can reflect the Indian feelings towards colonization as Aziz expressed in chapter 2:"  "Madam, this is a mosque, you have no right here at all; you should have taken off your shoes; this is a holy place for Moslems."	Symbolism is used by the author in many parts of the novel to refer to certain meanings.	Symbolism
Adela's attitude in recognizing India and how she really desired to experience India. P23: "Miss Quested …announced anew that she was desirous of seeing the real India." The desire of the English to discover India such as when Moor made a trip to the mosque.	Experimentation and knowledge were used in the novel as tools for asserting their importance in modern life as they help people realize the reality of things and people.	Experimentation and knowledge
Adela challenges many social rules and acted individually when she admitted in the court that Aziz didn't follow her. Fielding is an individualist without high allegiance to other certain groups and his individualism is represented in his decent treatment for the Indians.	Individualism can be represented in the novel through the characters and their challenge to the social norms and ordinary rules.	Individualism
Adela think that there can be possibility in making friendship between the Indians and the English. This is clear when Mrs. Moor asks the India lady :"I wonder whether you would allow us to call on you some day:" P39. Here she is trying to make friendship with the lady.	Forster tries to assert equality in the novel through the thoughts of some characters that Indians should be equal to English people.	Equality in friendship

T.S.Eliot

He was the most famous man of the twentieth century. He made a great success in many fields such as poetry, playwriting, criticism and publishing. Among his followers, Eliot has a great effect on poetry and criticism not less than others like Ben Johnson, Johnson, Coleridge and Matthew Arnold.

Biography

T.S Eliot was born on September 26, 1888. He was born in Missouri. He moved to England in 1914 as he worked and get married there. He went to Harvard, he studied at Oxford University. T.S Eliot attracted the attention by his famous poems which considered as masterpieces of modernism. In 1927, he joined the Anglican Catholic Church of England. He received the Nobel Prize in 1948. He died in 1965.

About the Essay

One of the most important essays in criticism named "Tradition and Individual Talent" (1919), has three parts. The first part talked about tradition. Then we find that the second part moved to Eliot's theory of impersonality in poetry. Then we find a summary of his thoughts in previous parts.

 Introduction

T.S Eliot talked about the relationship between tradition of the earlier writers and the individual talent of the poet.

(1) Meaning of the Tradition

Eliot mans the poets of the past as a whole. It reflects social , economic elements which influence the poet.

111) Dynamic Nature of Tradition .:

Tradition doesn't mean to take writings as it is from the past. You can get it through thinking and working. It's clear that literary tradition walks on the same line from the past until now. Eliot's conception of tradition is dynamic. The poets from the past must learn from those who came before them and so on, in order to make a line to complete each other.

  Function of Tradition : Importance of Both Tradition and Individual Talent

The job of tradition on Eliot's point of view is to judge on previous works of art. It doesn't mean that the new art is better than the old ones. The past ( tradition) helps to understand the present (  individual talent). Both of them are important and to combine them is to gain better piece of art.

Sense of the Tradition and its Importance :

In his essay, Eliot says that poets should have a sense of tradition to know and judge the past, the small and the great ones in a critical objective way.

Conclusion

Eliot has showed the meaning of tradition and it's relationship with individual poet. Then he talked about the important of sense of tradition.

Impersonality of Poetry :

Actually poetry doesn't express personality but it's a type of flee from personality. Objective criticism should be on the poem not on the poet.

111) Analogy of a Catalist :

According to Eliot, the poet must be impersonal like scientist. The personality of the poet isn't important, sense of tradition is more important than it. The poet should forget his sadness and joys to express his fact.

Writing a poem or a piece of art is like a chemical process. In a chemical lab we find that chemical elements and ingredients combine together to form a new element, the same thing happens in poetry, the poet combine thoughts, emotions and experiences to form poetry in it's perfect way.

 Poetry : Escape from Personality :

Eliot says :

" Poetry is not turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not expression of personality, but an escape from personality".

Poetic Emotions are Refined :

Eliot says that the emotions of poetry differ from the personal emotions of poet. The personal emotions may be small and simple but poetry emotions are more complicated.

Conclusion : Thus Eliot has given his famous theory of impersonality in art or poetry. It remains one of the better-known theories of Eliot.

“Practical Criticism”

I. A. Richards

Richards shows that the reader criticism should be objective. Richards has a scientific methodology. He doesn't begin from certain from the earlier standards,  Maybe, he begins as any great researcher would by looking to collect certain exact actualities.

He accumulates the real reactions offered by genuine college understudies in a classroom setting at the college of Cambridge. The following step is to break down the outcomes and to clarify these outcomes.

The last step is to give a cure by which to dodge the broken interpretive techniques in charge of these false readings and to actualize, by difference, right interpretive systems intended to lead one to a precise perusing of the importance of the work being referred to.

His main assumption is that works have a single, correct meaning.

Starts with the psychobiological birthplace of man's drive for expression

Considers analogy to be focal

Comprehends "talk" as the aggregate correspondence handle, and characterizes "talk" as "investigation of mistaken assumptions and their cure.

Meaning According to Richards:

To realize the meaning of words, it doesn't mean to know the definition from dictionary, but you should realize it through putting it a sentence.

Universal Sign Situation
Deduction and correspondence are occasions and have meaning seeing that we can relate the jolts to some past experience

Consciousness of the relationship in the middle of jolt and forerunners/consequents results from the association of the boost with comparative encounters before.

“Practical Criticism”:
      An over view of the book

• I. A. Richards, born in England  (26 February 1893 – 7 September 1979)
• His books include:
• The Meaning of Meaning
• Principles of Literary Criticism
• Practical Criticism

PART I: INTRODUCTORY

Richards describes how he got to be interested with the way that reactions to the same abstract work could be so broadly disparate.

This invigorated him to give out ballads to his understudies without titles or names on it – he did this so understudies would not be influenced by any presumptions which they may have officially had concerning the creator or the work being referred to.

PART II: DOCUMENTATION  Richard lays out the 13 lyrics together with the understudies' reactions to them, this with a perspective to archiving the sheer assortment and uniqueness of their understandings of the extremely same works.

STRUCTURALISM

Originated from France to the US in mid 1960s

It's a development to comprehend dialect through exploratory studies and 'profound structure'

It endeavors to represent human conduct, thought, discourse, and activity

Structuralism takes a gathering of abstract messages and follows examples to finish up a hypothesis, and to how these works and can identify with an entirety.

Through investigation, structuralism estimates about 'the novel', another article ( a hypothesis that demonstrates the profound structure that makes a novel.

The objective is to assemble enough information to orchestrate 'profound structures`

Ferdinand de Saussure

• He said “language is not a function of the speaker. It is a product that the passively assimilated by the individual”
• Language is not private but rather available in public domain

Language includes everything in dictionary

Language or Speech?

Speech is our main event and in with a specific end goal to bode well references dialect

We comprehend signs differentially through a procedure of invalidation (parallel)

Setting is vital (homonyms)

Dialect does not exist in disengagement but rather just in a framework

Key Principles:

1. Language structures our perception of the world

Contradicts customary suspicion that languagebexists as basic elucidating code through which the truth is straightforwardly imparted.

In spite of the fact that we think we control dialect, dialect controls us.

2. Language is understandable as system of signs:

Through implication qualities are forced on generally esteem free elements

No sign exists in seclusion

3. Signs are understandable synchronically:

4. Signs are understandable diachronically:

- Traces chronology of signs

5. Literature as manifestation of sign systems:

Stories structure society

Can examine a content synchronically or diachronically

Can search for 'profound structures'

Can search for paired resistances

6. No sign is fully understandable.

Too impressively joined with different signs for conclusive examination

Objective is to catch parts of a sign's importance

Reader-Response

Introduction

• Emerged in 1930
• Primary focus on reading
• It is text- based not author- based : “text and text alone”
• Also called as “Affective Fallacy”

Leading Scientists:

• Stanley Fish
• Wayne Booth
• Louise Rosenblatt

Theoretical Assumption

There should be some interaction between reader and The literary text in order to understand it. Reader has a great role as he's actually active.

Features

Relationship between text and  reader.

Reality exists in readers mind.

Subjective vs. Objective

A "subjective" perusing of a content:

relates to the individual (the peruser). A subjective perusing of a content is one in which accentuation is set on the states of mind, inclinations, and feelings of the peruser.

A "target" perusing of a content:

relates to an article (the content) separate from the individual (the peruser). A target perusing of a content is one that is uninfluenced by feelings or individual biases.

Peruser Response feedback offers a subjective, or egocentric, perusing of a content.

What is Reader-Response?

A text without a reader means nothing, so there isn't any text without a reader. A reader gives meaning to the text.

RR criticism is a trained hypothesis meriting a cautious perusing of the content.

The peruser joins with the creator to "offer the content some assistance with meaning."

A successful reader-response does not simply react to a content—anybody can do that—yet dissects his or her reaction, or the reactions of others.

Since every peruser will collaborate with the content in an unexpected way, the content may have more than one substantial translate.

READER-RESPONSE STYLISTICS

RR examines the reader’s response to a text as a response to a horizon of expectations.

In RR, there is a collaboration between the structure of the content and the peruser's reaction. It brings out a circumstance where singular perusers offer intending to the content. This is on the grounds that every peruser will collaborate with the content in an unexpected way, as the content may have more than one striking understanding.

RR theorists share two beliefs:

1. The important role of reader .
2. Reader gives active meaning to the text.

Reader Response Theory, simply stated, is the reader's response to literary text.

Reader response method differs from Traditional method

In RRM we find improving ideas, student dependent, critical reader. On the other hand in the TM we find single ideas, teacher dependent, no practice of mind.

  

Efferent vs. Aesthetic

 Efferent Mode: focus on the information which in the text

Aesthetic Mode: focus on the relationship that the reader experiences with the text.

Determinate vs. Indeterminate

Determinate significance alludes to what may be called realities of the content: certain occasions in the plot or physical depictions unmistakably gave by words on the page

Affective Stylistics

The content is analyzed nearly so as to see how (stylistics) the content influences (full of feeling) the peruser amid the perusing procedure.

The content does not have an altered significance autonomous of perusers

The importance of the sentence  for the reader, the problems which the reader can find through reading the text.

Critics using good ways .

• Types of Responses
• Initial emotional response
• Interpretive
• Analysis
• Question
• Summary
• Arguing with author
• Inter textuality

Kinds of Reader

Suggested reader figures out the determinate significance of the content

Genuine reader fills the crevice in the content and discover the uncertain importance of the content.

What is literature?

Works of the creative energy/experimental writing?

Works with a specific arrangement of characteristics—e.g., plot, character, tone, setting, and so on.?

Works that stress widespread subjects (i.e., rise above the simply social or political)?

Works that fit the parameters of artistic kinds: lyric, exposition, short story, novel?

What is literary theory?

The ability to make speculations regarding wonders and to create ideas that shape the premise for understanding and investigation—in this case, of an "abstract" content.

What is literary criticism?

Analyzing using theoretical principles and evaluating  the text.

THE 4 CRITICAL VARIABLES of LITERARY THEORY & CRITICISM

1. the world
2. The author
3. The text
4. The reader

SOME TRADITIONAL APPROACHES

Authentic—author's chronicled minute is critical to understanding an abstract content

Historical—author's close to home encounters are key to understanding the content

Traditional ways of identifying literature

Mimesis: it's the oldest way.

Expresivity: combine emotions though empathy.

Rethorics: depending on expressive gadgets, and additionally on their ability to awe and impact the peruser.

Poetics : those attributes which separate a wonderful content from another scholarly content.

Narativity : for all time outlined to literature.

Hippolyte Taine (1828-1893)

Taine's three central point for deciphering a content:

Race—i.e., national qualities of the craftsman's authentic place and time

Milieu—i.e., whole of craftsman's experience

Minute—scholarly and philosophical streams of craftsman's authentic place

Wellek and Warren Theory of Literature (1949)

Key issues to understanding a text:

The writer’s heredity & environment (Taine’s “milieu”)

The fictional world of the text vis-à-vis the world outside the text (Taine’s “race” & “moment”

Irresolvable problem with traditional (pre-1970) social approaches to literary interpretation

Specialists expected that recorded, anecdotal, and social data could be precisely assembled and confirmed. They saw dialect as straightforward, actualities as solid, history as goal. Poststructuralist hypotheses about the ideological allotment of dialect by overwhelming gatherings and postmodernist bafflement with target reality both undermine old-style feedback.

NEW CRITICISM*

Writings may contain various messages, however must have a binding together focal subject made by the ideal union of every single aesthetic component.

Writings are aesthetic manifestations

FORMALISM

• (New Criticism)
• (Russian Formalism)

New criticism: America in the  1930s

The New Critics considered verse to be a method for living really in a shallow world (post-war mass frustration).

In their vision, translating a content rejects both the reader and the writer.

Intentional Fallacy theory (IF)

• IF(W. K. Wimsatt): the confusion of auctorial intention with the reality of the text
• The text in itself needs to guide us, not indicate what the author meant.

Affective Fallacy theory (AF)

The reader takes his/her enthusiastic response to the content with what the content "truly" intends to pass on.

The "genuine" which means of the content is escaped the peruser.

The New feedback proposed perusing and deciphered the sheer content.

Reading for form (New Criticism) 

The New Critics have made a unique sort of basic group, a "Procustian bed".

The primary attributes are incongruity, equivocalness, development, self-restraint (the artist/author were not permitted to customize the sonnet/work)

This hypothesis is reflected in Virginia Woolf's To the Lighthouse, or J. Joyce's Ulysses.

This sort of writing turns into the blue-print of genuineness, and "manly" clarity.

Russian Formalism

In the first many years of twentieth century in Moscow and St. Petersburg develops the European custom of advanced abstract studies.

The Formalist School is in the long run built up in France after the second World War.

The Formalist school achieves its crest in the 60's (Structuralism).

• The formalist’s works were translated into English btw. 1950-1960.

In France there was a parallel movement of cultural anthropology Cl. Levi Strauss

Russian Formalism

 At first centered around verse.

Their just concern is the type of a scholarly work, keeping in mind the end goal to peruse the profound significance of the content.

Not intrigued by the social capacity of writing.

They disregard the referential capacity (the old Aristotelian mimesis idea)

Essential questions of the Formalist approach

• What makes a text literature/literary?
• What do all literary texts have in common?
• Is there a common literary factor?

Means of identifying literarity in Formalism

defamiliarizing of normal dialect through ritmic and metrice structures (R. Jakobson)

story construction (Slovski, Propp)

elaborate gadgets (Vinogradov)

persuasions of classes (Tanianov)

topical structures (Tomasevski)

READER RESPONSE

The relation between reader and the text

STRUCTURALISM

Meaning resides in the structure of language.

Scientific way to analyze literature.

MARXISM

Importance lives in content, history, and belief system: messages of mistreatment and class struggle

Writings are things, not ageless centerpieces

Truths are socially developed.