The likelihood that India would enjoy a comparative advantage of some products.

India has competitiveness in international trade as the country The Indian auto industry is one of the most competitive industries in the world, India was considered the fourth largest passenger car exporter after Japan, Thailand and South Korea in 2009 and it maintained the third position in the year 2010. The industry then grew in next years to have a growth rate of 17% in 2015 and maintain sales estimated with 4 million Dollars but in next years after 2015 growth stopped and the country stopped maintain competitive advantage over the world. (Singh, 2020) Oil and gas industry is one of the main six industries in India as it is a factor for the country's growth and economy development. The country depends on oil and gas manufacturing and marketing which represents 15% of the country's GDP. In relation to the foreign currency, exports from gas and oil industry represent a7% of the country's total exports. India has also different investment opportunities in the oil industry field that are in refinery as India is ranked the fifth in this category, retail as the country connects its success in automobile market to oil industry and gas that total used gas in India is consumed highly there but there is still continuous demand for it and it is suggested that natural gas share increase in India in 2025 to represent 205 from its current 8%. (Investindia, 2020)

India has growing level in computer industry which is internationally prevailing and facing great competition from China. India has comparative advantage in the field of telecommunication, information services and computer trade that has increased recently but in comparison to China, it is decreasing. The commerce ministry shows that the country is developing according to an analysis of comparative advantage in different service segments related to computer and technology such as software and information technology. Yet India is scoring over China in computer and information services. India has been so strong in areas of telecommunication, information services and computer but its comparative advantage in this field was 1.62 and dropped to 1.5 through 2016 in front of China which represents a threat to it in that industry. India made total of 162 $ billion in front of China that made 209 billion 4 IN 2016 AS China has strong position in areas connected to computer such as transportation and physical inputs as well as maintenance and repair services. This makes the comparative advantage of India is in need to grow more in the field of computer. (Pattanayak, 2018)     

India has a strong comparative advantage in pharmaceuticals export to the whole world as a result of its ability for producing brand name drugs that is of low-cost and that has an important position in the Indian economy. The pharmaceuticals industry in India has grown up at 7.2 % with a contribution to the Indian gross domestic market that is 1.3% in 2004 that increased in next years to grow after that and master world market. The country depends on pharmaceutical firms and Indian companies focus on price advantage to maintain low-cost production. The Food and Drug Administration has helped Indian firms to grow in the pharmaceuticals industry and market its products mainly in developing countries and to spread after that in many destinations. India now has developed its industry to export drug intermediates too and its export amount is about 10% of the world production and about 40-50% of the industry total turnover.  The country's exports in the field of pharmaceuticals have developed to exceed the country's exports in all other fields and industries with a growth rate that is supposed to continue growing. The growth rate shows that the country  has developed its comparative advantage in that field throughout a time period that recorded erratic growth although there were areas of stabilization. The country's exports in pharmaceuticals include many segments such as cardiac, gastrointestinal, respiratory and anti-infectives. (Singh et al, 2015)

India has succeeded in the sector of gold and jewelry with a growing market size that is supposed to reach 103.06 US$ in 2023. Its demand for gold in 2018 was 760.4 tons and in 2019 was 496.11 tons which contribute to the Indian economy greatly with about 7% of its GDP and 15% of its total exports. The country depends on the industry of gold manufacturing to employ about 4.64 million workers and in 2022, this rate is supposed to raise to reach 8.32 million workers. This growth depends on its comparative advantage and the government supports the industry with measures for investment promotion in gold industry in addition to adding technology to the industry to market products in international markets under very common and attractive brand names. Brand India depends on high skilled labor and unique styling in polished gold that is supported with diamonds too. Indian market size in the gold and jewelry field is a great one that contributes for 29% of the world gold consumption and is supposed to grow more in 2023. (Ibef, 2020)

India is one of the most important trading partners with Oman, it has a bilateral trade that estimated with 5 billion Dollars in 2018-19 as India was the second larger importer from Oman to oil crude and Oman is a country that hosts more than 780.000 citizen from India working in different fields to express the second largest country with expatriates in Oman. Oman and India have made a Maritime Transport Agreement that supports India to expand its trade in Oman and the Persian Gulf. This supported them in many industries including petroleum industry as India is exporting oil from Oman to manufacture and refine it. Oman has allowed India to use its ports such as Duqm port for having joint-ventures in many fields such as integrated tourism, software and gold industries. Oman has licensed the State Bank of India to support marketing the different products related to computer industry such as software and hardware. (Chaudhury, 2019) India-Oman bilateral remains strong in many fields and industries such as automotive and pharmaceuticals products as India has a high and strong priority in making bilateral trade with Oman to support the countries' economic relations and grow them, the bilateral trade between them witnessed a decline in 2014 to increase again in 2017 from US $ 3.8 billion to 4 $ billion. Products of exports of India to Oman include mineral oils, fuels, machinery, iron, steel items and chemicals and the main items of the imports of India from Oman include mineral oils, fertilizers, organic chemicals from earth and sea and plastering materials. (Indemb, 2020)  

In conclusion, India has comparative advantage in many different fields and industries and the country is having trade deals with Oman in products such as oil, automotive industry and computer. 

Michael Jackson's Global Cultural Impact-The Smooth Criminal!!

Karema Alsherif

How Michael Jackson captured people's attention 

Michael Jackson, the smooth criminal, when you hear the name, you might have specific memories if you were born in the 1980s or even before, memories that are connected to feelings and images that can remind you of certain situations and attitudes you used to have in your early youth. Michael used to have main signs including his twirls, moonwalks, crotch-grab and songs that left great cultural impact on the whole world. He was that legend that left marks on the whole music industry worldwide. His works changed music forever but he himself changed people too. His character shed light on many world issues such as humanity, ethnicity and climate change.

How he shared in charity? 

 His charity works such as donation for AIDS help organizations supported many sick people as well as his help to people having cancer. He used to support many groups such as the United Nations High Commission for Refugees. He used to have a major impact on people everywhere in the world through his songs and dancing styles, he used to choose unique innovative styles of music and dance choosing specific topics that singers never focused on such as horror, crime, nature and human love. Many people all over the world were blown by his style of clothes, dances and songs as he was one of the main influencers on fashion and music styles.

Movie-like music videos 

 He was one of the first artists who used movie-like music videos aligned with dance to present songs that can act as a short thrill movie. Lyrics he used to choose were also unique as well as the sound and the dancers worked with him. With his unique hair style, hats, make up and clothes he made a fashion style that can't be repeated till today and this affected the fashion industry to the extent that great brands used to make fashion lines for Michael Jackson everywhere in the world. Many artists who came after him such as Justin Bieber and Kanaye West have adopted many facets that were inspired from Michael Jackson's iconic style but with the tastes of their own.

Global cultural impact 

 Michael Jackson tried to use his fame for the good as he raised the public's awareness towards issues such as humanity, nature and love. He was apparent as a character on social media and an influencer too as being a humanitarian whom people see as an inspirer and influencer. His support in issues such as refugees' rights and UNICEF issues and children problems made him more than a mere pop star.     He impacted a global culture too through global culture adoption as he wasn't only famous in the USA and Europe but in all the world with his skin that made great controversy impact as people discussed this issues many times but he was the one to exist in all cultures and belong to all races. 

 

The relationship between infrastructure and business climate in Oman

1.     Introduction

1.1  Overview

Oman is a country of the Gulf that is located in the south-eastern quarter of the Arabian Peninsula and it tends to leverage its strategic location by many was such as investing in its infrastructure aiming at being a global logistics center. The country is trying to have a future plan that depends on privatization, Omanization and diversification. Its future economic diversity depends on mining, logistics, tourism and fisheries as basic drivers for future development, vision 2040 focuses on supporting the country's infrastructure in order to support the business climate that is always changing and developing. The plan of the Sultanate to develop its infrastructure covers many areas and production sectors such as water infrastructure, airports, physical improvements, logistics and other services including communication, information technology and telecommunications. Oman's drive to growth includes many areas such as its social development, economic diversification and the best utilization for its natural resources. This also considers the business climate and the business needs locally and internationally and the relationship between them and how this may affect the Omani growth plan. (Yarahamdi and Magd, 2016)

1.2  Problem statement

There is a relationship between infrastructure and business climate and it depends on many factors related to the country's economic growth and national and global competitiveness. Infrastructure has a great influence on economy and national competitiveness in the country. When there is effective infrastructure management in the country, this can improve the industrial policy and in return improve the national competitiveness. (Palei, 2014) Infrastructure according to O’Fallon, (2003) is referred to by economists as infrastructure capital or physical infrastructure that has a role in providing services and assets including transport, energy, telecommunications, water services, sanitation, waste safe disposal and other services that can support economic production and different society activities.  

Oman is a country that has strong infrastructure that can support different activities and business fields in the private and public sectors as the country has many developing projects in its infrastructure including communication, electrical system, road construction, telecommunication and other areas and this makes the country maintain suitable business climate for investors. Oman airport system has been completely modernized and developed to boast areas of duty-free shopping and include great transit areas and lounges as a main infrastructure that can support different business activities such as exporting and importing and other logistic services. Oman also supports its infrastructure including the improvements made in the harbors, telecommunication system and other institutional and environmental infrastructure. ()

1.3  Statement of Purpose

Infrastructure has a great influence on economy and national competitiveness in the country. When there is effective infrastructure management in the country, this can improve the industrial policy and in return improve the national competitiveness. The current paper is evaluating the relationship between infrastructure and business climate in Oman in each of the public and private sectors and discussing the different business opportunities related to this relationship through discussing and analyzing the impact of infrastructure on the business climate on the public sector and private sector companies in Oman and how these companies need infrastructure to be like in order to reach competitiveness on both local and international levels.

This study is chosen by the author for many reasons such as investigating how far infrastructure is related to the business climate in Oman and if the public and private sectors can make use of the level of infrastructure development in Oman in order to improve their business in a supportive business climate. It is also chosen to analyze the relationship between infrastructure and business climate and the impact of this relationship on economic and business development in Oman's companies in both public and private sectors.

1.1  Statement of Objectives

The following are the research objectives

-To discuss the relationship between infrastructure and business climate and its impact on the public sector in Oman.

-To discuss the relationship between infrastructure and business climate and its impact on the private sector in Oman.

-To investigate the different impacts of infrastructure development on the business climate and how business organizations are affected by them.

1.5 Scope and limitations of the study

This study focuses on discussing and analyzing the relationship between infrastructure and business climate referring to the different scopes of infrastructure and how governments develop their infrastructure in order to have strong economy. The study sheds light on the business environment in Oman and how business organizations can make use of the improvements that countries make in their infrastructure and how such developments can support economy and business. The study uses a survey questionnaire with 100 employees from public and private business organizations in Oman.

The study has some specific weaknesses and limitations such as it is made in Muscat business organizations which may make the assessment of the relationship between infrastructure and business climate depends on limited views from Muscat. Results are also depending on the answers and opinions of the participants which limits the study to some extent.

1.2  Significance of the study

The study is relevant to the infrastructure and its relationship with business climate in Oman and in the whole globe as well because competitive advantage depends on coping with the local and global competitiveness and discussing several factors that have effect on the effectiveness of the economy growth and the Omani national competitiveness too that can include infrastructure and the business environment with other factors.

This study is necessary to business owners and business organizations in Oman and the world and it is also important for governments and their economy that can be developed according to the nature and growth of their infrastructure that is directly related to the business climate where business can develop and grow.

2.     Literature Review

a.      Infrastructure profile in Oman

Oman is a country that is investing in its infrastructure based upon its strategic location locally and globally in order to be a global logistics center, this investment includes focusing on mining, tourism, manufacturing, fisheries and other economic drivers that can provide improvements to the country's economy in its next plan for 2040 vision. Oman is a fast growing country that puts much in its infrastructure investments as a result of its flourishing construction and oil industries. The country has set 3.7 RO as allocation for its infrastructure development in order to give a fillip to the country's infrastructure sector, the Sultanate has allocated RO 3.7 bn for developing its infrastructure, services projects and industries in the year 2019 from its budget with total spent amount estimated with RO 3.7 bn in the year 2019 that includes RO 1.2 bn for being allocated to the infrastructure projects that can be regarded clearly in the different services and units of the government as well as another amount of RO 2.5 bn for being used by public entities owned for the government for implementing projects in different service and industrial sectors. The country's development plan of 2016-2020 puts much interest and importance on the construction development in the country through the utmost utilization of the country's resources and opportunities for investment in the different governorates of the Sultanate. The country has also private investment that includes services activities (37%), commodities production activities (32.6%) and infrastructure (29%). The construction industry in Oman accounts for 9% of its GDP and it is a great employer in the Sultanate. The construction market in Oman is supposed to register a CAGR of 6% over the 2019-2024 forecast period.  The government has stated that development projects will be spent on for ensuring the ongoing projects completion without any delaying plans. (businessliveme, 2019)

b.      The relationship between infrastructure and business climate

Infrastructure includes the different facilities that are capital-intensive and not of public interest. Most of the infrastructure in a country is used by the public and they are referred to as infrastructure capital or physical infrastructure. Infrastructure has a role that can be evaluated by the services provided through it and the assets it includes. Infrastructure is a long term asset and it has a long life cycle and return on investment period that may face a market failure time or even efficiency of the economy. Infrastructure includes different types such as social, environment and institutional infrastructure. Infrastructure refers to the different services' institutions and logistics people need including water infrastructure, transport infrastructure, energy infrastructure and telecommunication infrastructure and other services' infrastructure such as schools, prisons, hospital and others. Such public infrastructure provides service for a great number of people who can make benefits from using them according to the level of development they have. In Oman, there is a network of infrastructure channels and facilities in urban and rural areas as well and the country is trying to develop them more in order to support its economy and provide a suitable business climate for investors to work in and achieve success. This is included within the country's development strategy and this includes some infrastructural projects focusing on basics as water, power, transportation and telecommunication. Infrastructure is very necessary for any country that is developing its growth as services can make different investment projects easier and more effective. Business development mainly depends on having better infrastructure as this can improve the type of service business owners can make benefit of and make transporting goods easier and cheaper which raises the ability of mobilization and reduce any limitations to the business.              

EA300B Compare ‘family’ in Beatrix Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit, and in Anthony Browne’s Voices in the Park.

Outline

Research question

Compare ‘family’ in Beatrix Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit, and in Anthony Browne’s Voices in the Park.

Thesis Statement

There are differences and similarities in the representation of family in Beatrix Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit, and in Anthony Browne’s Voices in the Park differs in many ways that depend on different elements and conditions.

Topic sentence

There is a difference between the traditional representation of family (The Tale of Peter Rabbit) and the postmodern one (Voices in the Park).

Topic sentence

There is diversity in the representation of family in the two picture books and in the way they are portrayed.

Topic sentence

They comprise a mom, a dad, and children differently and they share different social class and different ethnic background.

Topic sentence

There are similarities in the presentation of family in both works.

Introduction

The representation of family in (The Tale of Peter Rabbit) is traditional while in (Voices in the Park) it is different as it is a postmodern work that includes different elements. The current paper is critically discussing the family representation in both works through a comparison that studies certain elements such as the social class, ethnic background and the members of the family in each work referring to literature and discussing if there are any similarities in the two works.

Loss angels abrasion and aggregation impact

1.      TITLE: Loss angles abrasion and aggregate impact value.

2.      AIM OF THE EXPERIMENTS: To knowledge the difficulties  course of Aggregate  that through Angles abrasion loss test.

In experiment 7, The test is to determine the total impact value of coarse aggregates as IS: 2386

( Part  IV ) – 1963

3.      THEORY: In experiment 6, The Testing for Loss Angles Abrasion in Machine composes a hollow through steel cylinder and closed in both ends, an inside  having diameter of 28" and an inside length 20". Cylinder is placed in the shafts stub  that will be attached to both ends of the steel cylinder, which do not enter and mounted in such a way that it can be rotated around its center in a horizontal position. Slot is provided in the cylinder for the introduction of the test sample and that it can be closed dust-tight with the removable cover closed in place. The cover is designed to preserve the Contour of the cylindrical inner surface. They are placed on the shelf so the charges do not fall into the cover or come in contact with them during the probationary period. Steel rack removable radial projection 3- ½" into the cylinder and extending its full length is mounted along one thing of the interior surface of the cylinder. Also, The shelf is such thickness and so mounted by bolts or other approved means to be strong & firm. The position of the shelf, which is like the distance from the shelf to the opening of the measure along the perimeter of the cylinder, which should be in the direction of rotation of at least 50 ".If It stops the lid on the bottom, so it can be difficult to access the site, and move the barrel through the panel and then the weight of the external push forward and then reverse with the withdrawal of move the barrel to the wanted position.

In experiment 7, the road aggregate it was  has been manufactured to a specified grading stockpiled,  transported, spread loaded into trucks, tipped, and set up when was manufactured. Some degradation may take place and result in a change in grading and the production of excessive and undesirable fines if the aggregate is weak. However, when an aggregate complying with a specification at the quarry in the pavement, it may fail to do so. It can be quite high for  the Granular base layers and surfacing to be prone to repeated loadings from big truck tyres and stress at the contact points of aggregate particles. These crushing tests can manifest aggregate properties vulnerable to mechanical degradation of this form. The table below shows requirements.  A . KAIKADE,  J . (2005).

4.      APPARATUS:  

Experiment 6:

Standard Sieves ,  Los Angeles Machine ,  Drying Oven , Steel balls Charge , Scales and 1.70 mm(No.12) sieve.

Figure 6.1: Equipment’s of experiment

Experiment 7:

·      Weighing Tools: Impact testing machine conforming to IS: 2386 Sieves and sizes  10 mm 2.36 mm and 12.5 mm).

·      A cylindrical metal measure of ( 75 mm  dia.)+( 50 mm depth ).

5.      MATERIALS:

Experiment 6

Aggregate Coarse

 6.      EXPERIMENT METHOD:

Experiment 6:

1.Wash and so oven‐dry 5000 grams  sample  of the aggregate - dry to a constant mass at 230 ºF ( + / - 9)( 110  ° C  ( + / -  5 )) nest sieves in order of decreasing size of the opening, and place sample  of aggregate on the top sieve.

2.  sample of separate  to the individual size fractions with sieving material retained weight in each sieve.

3. Reassemble material  sieved to the required grades - the total mass of the nearest record 1 gram.

4. Rotate the drum for five-hundred revolutions at a constant speed of 30 to thirty -three rpm - approximately a quarter-hour  -  shelf recommendations up charge  + sample at bottom of drum  -  charge  +  sample dropped as drum goes around  crushing - charge  & sample roll at lower side grinding.

5. It should remove sample from machine.

6. Dry Sieve over a No. 12 sieve

7. Passing Material=degraded

8.  Retained Material=intact

9. Wash and oven retained dry material ( if required  )

10. Near of weigh 1 gram

11. Calculate percent loss because abrasion with calculating the difference between the original sample of weight and larger particles  for retained material. The difference  weight is reported as a percent from the original weight and called " loss  of percent  ".

Experiment 7

1) The sample test should adjust to following grading:

Passing on IS : (12.5 mm )Sieve 100 %

Retention through IS: ( 10 mm ) Sieve 100 %

2) The sample which will be oven-dried for four hours from 100 to 110 oC temperature and cooled.

3) The measure is about one - third full prepared aggregates and compacted with (25 ) strokes of the compacting rod.

A more similar quantity of aggregates will be added and a further tamping of ( 25 ) given strokes. The measure will finally be filled to surplus, tamped (25)times and the overflow aggregates struck off, using a tamping rod for straight edge. The net weight aggregates in the measure will be determined to the nearest g ( Weight A ).

A) The effect testing machine cup will be fixed securely properly on the foundation of the machine. The total of the sample test  placed in it and tamped by(25) strokes for tamping rod.

B) The hammer will be elevated to ( 380 mm ) over an upper surface of the aggregates in the cup and allowed to fall freely onto the aggregates. sample test will be prone to an overall total of ( 15 )such blows, and each one will be delivered at an interval which not less than one second. 

7.      DATA AND RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS:

Loss angles abrasion

2500 grams of 9.5 mm

2500 grams  of 12.5 mm

Retained from 1.7mm  =    4285 grams

LAN= ( 5000    -   4285  /   5000   )  *   100% =  14.3%

Aggregate impact value

1- The sample will removed by IS sieve (2. 36mm). The fraction moving will be through ( Weight B ) and the fraction salvaged on the sieve will be ( Weight C). So, if the overall weight B+C  is less than first ( weight A ) by more the 1 gram, the end result will be rejected and a new test will be achieve.

2- The weight of rate fines formed to the overall sample weight should be as a percentage.

Weight 1=   38.2 grams

Weight 2=   33.6 grams

W.  of  Coarse Aggregate =Weight 2 – Weight 1 =38.2-33.6= 4.6grams

  passing A = 33.6 + 4.6  = 38.2grams

  retuning B  = 33.6grams

Aggregate impact value= (   B  /  A  )  x 100  %

Aggregate impact value= ( 33.6   /    38.2)  x 100% =    87.95 %

8.      Discussion

Experiment 6:

The Loss angles test to scrape test pilot. Therefore it is not directly linked to the performance in the field of aggregates. Observations generally do not reveal A good relationship between the values of Loss angles abrasion  and field performance. Loss Angles friction loss is able to field performance expected. Specially, the test may not be satisfying for some types of aggregates. Some aggregates, such as some limestone and slag, tend to perform adequately in the field but have high Loss angles abrasion. Loss angles abrasion loss seems to be well related with dust be during handling and production of HMA in those aggregates with higher Loss Angles. values of abrasion loss  and usually generate more of dust. Through the result gained in the experiment, it is clear that rubble fit in the use of construction such as the foundation because it was given less than 17% and this resists external affecting factors. We all used, 11 balls for 500 cycles and which gave required  result of specifications

Experiment 7:

This experiment discussed the geological description of the aggregate, particle size and the source quarry. Also, it showed  the applied force,  dry is different in the weight and the masses of material after sieving  while calculations for result  was 5.3% . Moreover, it will discussed the results using in the range and collect results using from other group, then compare the  obtained values. Millard, R.S. (1993).

9.      Conclusion

The experiment investigated  the possibility of assuming the loss angles abrasion from the crushability index and the results of  loss angles abrasion, density, crushability and porosity tests . These tests were analyzed using multiple regression analyses and simple. Important relations  were generally gained from both multiple regression analyses and simple. The Simple equation is practical and reliable enough for the estimation of the loss angles abrasion from crushability index. However, who wants to make more precise assumption which can alternatively using two multiple regression equations.

Externalities Impact

Introduction

In economics, there has been great interest given to the effects of externalities on many fields of business and on the development and progress of different infrastructures. An externality can be defined as an effect of a third party that occurs as a result of services and goods production or consumption without paying suitable compensation for it. Market failure can occur when full costs and benefits are not considered by the price mechanism. There are negative externalities and positive externalities. Negative externalities occur if there are imposed costs on a third party caused by consumption or production. This can lead to harms to the environment such as pollution or noise. A positive externality occurs when there are benefits for a third party due to the consumption or production of a good or a service. The current paper is discussing the negative and positive effects and impacts of externalities on an infrastructure which is transportation.  (Reggiani and Button, 2011)

An example of a positive externality associated with the development of transportation

Accessibility is a positive externality which is associated with transportation development as the development of transportation enables people to reach services and activities everywhere and it represents the time and costs people spend on transportation.  There are many impacts of accessibility on transportation development as transportation needs to develop in order to raise accessibility quality. Transportation development depends on improving accessibility and the factors affecting it. Accessibility is considered a positive externality associated with transportation development due to many reasons as when traffic jam is reduced, this improves accessibility as congestion costs are reduced, this provides both individuals and society with benefits. Transport options improvement can also improve accessibility. The improvements can be seen in many aspects such as speed of means of transport, luxury, comfort, security level, service level, affordability and high quality services of transportation which is made for serving Accessibility and raising its level. To develop transport, it is necessary to understand people's needs of accessibility in addition to learn about the travel mode constraints and people's ability to afford costs of transportation. Transportation information is required to evaluate accessibility and such information should include users' information and information about the transportation quality. System integration can affect accessibility, for example, parking convenience and transferring between transportation modes should be improved in order to improve accessibility. Links and modes connections among each other affect accessibility that's why transportation development takes this into consideration. Accessibility of transportation modes is also affected by transportation terminals location and quality as accessibility is affected by the modes' quality such as bus stops, ferry terminals and train stations and other modes of transportation. Automobile accessibility is affected by transportation availability, price and parking convenience. This makes it very important to develop facilities of transportation and raise the quality of transportation modes. Accessibility needs to be evaluated from time to time in order to learn about the needs of users of transportation, efficiency of means of transport and level of services provided to people whether to serve transportation to local areas or long destinations. (Jimsd, 2006)

An example of a negative externality associated with the development of transportation

Accidents are considered a negative externality associated with transportation development for many reasons. Accidents resulting from transportation use cause many costs on both individuals and society such as the increasing number of deaths, injuries costs on injured persons and their families and on the society embodied in many costs that affect both individuals and society services as such costs can be difficult to be affordable by the government.  (VYSKOČILOVÁ, A., TECL, J., VALACH, O, 2013 )Development of transportation means increases the of accidents on individuals and society due to the rise in using transportation means and studying such costs and evaluating them can help develop transportation means in a way that reduces negative results from the accidents such as the costs which can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Accidents can also be divided into accidents with fatal injuries, accidents with serious injuries and accidents with slight injuries.  Direct costs resulting from accident caused by means of transportation include police effort, healthcare, fire rescue services costs, court, material damage, administrational costs and insurance costs.  Indirect costs which usually appear in the long term after accidents include production losses which result from delaying of production according to the jobs of injured people and social costs represented in the pensions provided for orphans, widows and disabled persons as a result of road accidents. (Rodrigue, 2015)

How the positive and negative externalities relate to the willingness to pay (WTP) analysis

Positive and negative externalities are related to the (WTP) analysis as the impacts related to externalities can be assessed economically by contingent valuation in order to find out new policies to address the negative externalities and help improve the positive externalities. For example,; measurements  and estimations of transportation negative externalities such as pollution, accidents and noise can help realize the volume of such externalities in each local area in order to reduce their impact on transportation development.  Surveys  and questionnaire analysis can be used to make such assessments. Willingness to pay (WTP) is what a person can ultimately provide to pay for a service or avoid its negative effects, so externalities which could be positive or negative can be studied and evaluated in order to measure people's WTP for them. Goods and services have prices which should be balanced between buyers' willingness to pay for them and sellers' willingness to accept them.  WTP value can be measured through many methods such as choice modeling. There are many approaches for WTP analysis that are used to measure costing and benefits of externalities such as the HC human capital approach, WTP analysis is used to reduce risks of negative externalities such as death rates and air pollution as negative externalities related to transportation and they are also used to improve positive externalities such as accessibility which is related to transportation. (Ortu¨ zar et al, 2000)

Conclusion

Transportation is a very important infrastructure which has many externalities related to it as they can be positive externalities or negative ones. Accessibility is an example of positive externalities related to transportation development as users' needs have to be well assessed in order to develop transportation. Road accidents are among the negative externalities which are associated with transportation development and they cause many costs on both individuals and society and they can be either direct or indirect costs.  WTP analysis is used to measure and estimate how positive externalities can be improved and how negative externalities can be avoided or reduced so there is a relation between externalities and WTP analysis.

The physical construction of the proximity sensor, its characteristics and working principle of i-phone 4

1. Physical construction

Proximity sensors of the mobile phones are capacitive sensors that are able to detect both metal and nonmetal things and they are  generally constructed of capacitive proximity sensor are plate, output circuit, oscillator and a threshold detector. When the person comes near the field of the sensor, it works to stop the works of the touch screen. Capacitance is raised when the object comes close and it is reduced when the object goes away.

2. Characteristics

A proximity sensor is characterized with its ability to recognize the existence of an object within a certain detection range which is specified according to the device abilities and the sensor boundaries, the sensor can recognize the person when the mobile phone is near his ear or face with certain distance, then the sensor can stop the work of keys of the mobile phone and other touching screen jobs in order to prevent turning the keys off or doing any unwanted actions that occur by touch. Proximity sensors include many types of sensors such as those found in mobile phones especially smart phones such as iphone 4. It depends on the physical contact in its operation. Manufacturers use proximity sensors in a commercial purpose which is raising the efficiency of the smart phone to attract more customers to buy it.

3. Working principle

The principle that proximity sensors work according to is its emitting for a beam or an electromagnetic radiation which is usually infrared, then the sensor works to detect the existence of changes in the field and if it doesn't find, the signal is returned by it. When the object is found, the sensor begins its operation. The found thing is called the proximity sensor's target.  There is a specific distance where the sensor can detect humans or things and it has a maximum known as the nominal range. There are sensors that are adjusted to the nominal range by a certain distance for detection. As proximity sensors don't have mechanical parts or physical contact with the sensed object, they are able to last for long time working properly. 

Result

A proximity sensor is a type of sensors that can be found in applications such as iphone 4 and it is using a detection process for objects or human found within the detection field and within the sensor's boundaries. The proximity sensor is based on the non contact detection which is different from other sensors. It can be helpful when the users of the iphone are talking and they don't fear the work of the touch screen such as turning the phone off or doing any relevant actions. Proximity sensors are accurate in detection jobs and they add extra commercial values to the product they are added to. The only disadvantage they have is the limited area of detection they sense. Proximity sensors are important for mobile phones manufacturers who consider them very important applications as many users of iphone look for such application so it is considered a commercial and an industrial success. 

Analysis and Discussion

A sensor is a device which works by receiving signals and sending certain signals which are used to express the needed task such as light, voice, sounds or motion. The sensor's job is turning the signal to a digital representation or to analog that represents the output. There are many different conditions that sensors work according to the specific job they are assigned to. Proximity sensors are set mainly for detection purposes. They work to convert the signals into readable outputs. The proximity sensors are not including mechanical parts or missions as they only use signals.

The type of sensors used to enhance the efficiency of iphone 4 is the capacitive sensors as they can detect both metallic and non metallic objects. This means that any smart phone can bear the capability of having a proximity sensor. Targeting motions is meant to be the basis of using this sensor in mobile phones.

The sensitivity of the capacitive proximity sensor and the application uses it can be measured by a method prepared mainly for this purpose, the application is iphone4. For tuning sensor placement, 2D sensor data plots were used and found more accurate but a 3D sensor data plots were found to be more effective for comparing sensors according to their efficiency and intensity as the differences between sensors used by many applications are shown and declared. Sensitivity measurements are important to measure the level of performance of the sensors. The phone is used by the users holding it with many possible ways and the sensor can work when the user is talking or browsing tasks. The sensor is physical sensitive and working in electric fields. Many modifications can be made for sensors of the mobile phones as most people look for new versions and updates of the iphone they have and issuing a new update of the mobile phone means that there is an improvement in the sensor applications. Thermal stress analysis can be done for other types of proximity sensors such as the inductive proximity sensors. Element analysis also can be made by the finite element method.

Conclusion and Future Work

In conclusion, it is important to report that sensors are widely used in many applications of computers and mobile phones especially those smart phones such as iphone4 which uses sensors for doing many tasks in the mobile that raise its efficiency and meets the needs of the customers. Proximity sensors are sensors that use signals in a way that is meant to detect the face of people talking or browsing the iphone 4 application screen in order to stop the touch screen work until the person goes away as the sensors send the signals and the function of the touch screen is delayed. Sensors are considered a commercial helping factor that manufacturers focus on in order to use them in new innovated applications that are helpful to the person and the society and provides welfare and luxury options in mobile phones. More future work is needed to enrich the literature review about this topic which is sensors and this future work can mainly depend on researches, questionnaires, surveys and discussions with the customers in order to measure their satisfaction with the application. Sensors have a long time validity but they soon can be updated to new versions which can be able to extend the field where detection process is occurring. More modifications can be added to the device in order to enhance its capabilities and raise its efficiency and abilities of performing the jobs required to be done by him. More studies will also be helpful in the field of sensors. Many researches should be conducted with different ways of analyzing the data collected about the use of inductive proximity sensors.